ENTOMOLOGY 135

INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

Classical Biological Control of Insects

1. Introduction.

1. Basic premise.
2. Pathogens vs. predators/parasitoids.

2. Historical development.

1. Prior to cottony-cushion scale (A. Fitch, B. Walsh, C. V. Riley).
2. Cottony-cushion scale project (A. Koebele, D. Coquillett, F. McCoppin).
3. Early twentieth century (G. Compure, H. S. Smith, C. P. Clausen, W. R. Thompson).
4. Modern era (California, other states, USDA, IIBC, etc.).

3. Foreign exploration

1. Exotic plants (see handout).
2. Exotic insect pests (see handout).
3. Determining native home of pest.
   1. taxonomy.
   2. host range.
   3. geographic distribution.
   4. natural-enemy complex.
   5. etc.
4. Legal aspects (importation/exportation permits).
5. Political aspects.
6. Practical aspects.
7. Current issues.
   1. type of target pest.
   2. habitat of pest.
   3. kinds of natural enemies.
   4. climate matching.
   5. genetic variation.
   6. etc.

4. Quarantine.

1. Purpose.
2. Structure of model facility.
3. Standard operating procedures.
4. Kinds of undesirable organisms.
   1. hyperparasites
   2. plant pathogens
   3. phytophagous insects
   4. etc.
5. Past mistakes (e.g., Quaylea whittieri)

5. Mass culture.

1. Insectary facilities and culture techniques.
2. Factitious hosts and artificial diets.
3. Problems in mass culture
   1. pathogens.
   2. diapause.
   3. nutritional requirements.
   4. symbiotes.
   5. crowding.
   6. genetics.
   7. etc.
4. Genetical aspects.
   1. founder effect.
   2. genetic drift.
   3. inbreeding.
   4. selection.
   5. hybridization.

6. Colonization.

1. Release, initial establishment, permanent establishment.
2. Classification
   1. built-in success.
   2. delayed success.
   3. establish but no impact.
   4. fail to establish.
3. Rate of establishment (ca. 34% worldwide).
4. Factors affecting establishment.
   1. host compatibility.
   2. climate.
   3. habitat.
   4. alternate hosts.
   5. natural enemies.
   6. interspecific competition.
   7. genetical factors.
   8. host phenology.
   9. number released.
   10. etc.
5. Introduction strategies.
   1. Empirical (trial and error).
   2. Predictive or analytical (carried out in reductionist vs. holistic manner).

7. Evaluation.

1. Ecological
   1. Correlative.
      • before/after.
      • percentage mortality.
      • life table.
   2. Experimental.
      • exclusion of natural enemy by mechanical, chemical, biological or other means.
2. Economic (benefit-to-cost ratio, etc.).
3. Environmental.

Selected References

• DeBach, P. (Editor). 1964. Biological Control of Insect Pests and Weeds. Chapman & Hall, London. 844 pp. (on reserve).
• Huffaker, C. B. and P. S. Messenger (Editors). 1976. Theory and PRactice of Biological Control. Academic Press, New York. 788 pp. (on reserve).
• Mackauer, M., L. E. Ehler and J. Roland (Editors). 1990. Critical Issues in Biological Control. Intercept, Andover, UK. 330 pp. (on reserve).
• Wilson, C. L. and C. L. Graham (Editors). 1983. Exotic Plant Pests and North American Agriculture. Academic Press, New York. 522 pp.
• Van Driesche, R. and T. Bellows (Editors). 1993. Steps in Classical Arthropod Biological Control. Thomas Say Publ. in Entomology, Entomological Society of America, Lanham, MD. 88 pp.

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