ENTOMOLOGY 135

INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

Biology of Parasitoids

1. Introduction.

1. Natural enemy pool:
   • viruses.
   • bacteria.
   • fungi.
   • protozoa.
   • nematodes.
   • parasitoids.
   • predators.
2. Operational definition of parasitoid.
3. Parasitoids vs. predators:
   • searching.
   • stage which kills host.
   • sex determination.
   • host range.
   • metamorphosis.

2. Major taxa of insect parasitoids.

3. Parasitoids: Classification and terminology.

4. Steps in successful parasitization.

1. Host habitat location:
   • macro- vs. microhabitat.
   • habitat stability.
2. Host selection: Host finding. Host identification. Host acceptance.
   1. Cues:
      • visual.
      • tactile.
      • acoustical.
      • chemical.
      • semiochemicals (pheromones, kairomones, allomones).
   2. Associative learning (conditioning).
   3. Searching behavior.
   4. Adaptive "decisions" by female.
3. Host utilization (parasitioid progeny vs. host).
   1. Host suitability.
      • progeny vs. encapsulation.
      • tritrophic effects.
      • supernumary conditions.
   2. Host regulation.
      • changes in size.
      • instars.
      • haemolymph biochemistry.
      • developmental time.
      • food consumption.
      • behavior.

4. Parasitoid guilds, parasitoid communities and biological control.

5. Current issues.

6. Slides.

7. General references.

• Askew, R. R. 1971. Parasitic Insects. Elsevier, New York. 316 pp.
• Beckage, N. E., S. N. Thompson, and B. A. Federici (Eds.).1993. Parasites and Pathogens of Insects. Academic Press, San Diego. Vol. 1, 272 pp.; vol. 2, 342 pp.
• Godfray, H. C. J. 1994. Parasitoids--Behavioral and Evolutionary Ecology. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. 473 pp.
• Goulet, H. and J. T. Huber (Eds.). 1993 Hymenoptera of the World. An Identification Guide to Families. Agriculture Canada, Ottowa. 680 pp.
• Hawkins, B. A. and W. Sheehan, (Editors). 1994. Parasitoid Community Ecology. Oxford University Press, UK. 516 pp.
• Vinson, S. B. 1995. Host Location by Parasitoids. Chapman and Hall, London. 192 pp.
• Waage, J. K. and D. Greathead (Editors).1986. Insect Parasitoids. Academic Press, New York. 389 pp.

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