ENTOMOLOGY 135

INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

Biology of Predators

I. Introduction.

1. Invertebrates:
   • insects.
   • spiders.
   • mites.
2. Vertebrates:
   • fish.
   • amphibians.
   • reptiles.
   • birds.
   • mammals.

2. Class Insecta.

1. Paurometabolous species.
   • Notonecta.
   • Orius.
   • Geocoris.
   • Nabis.
   • Zelus.
2. Holometabolous species.
   1. Adult free living; e.g.:
      • lacewings.
      • syrphids.
      • Adult predaceous; e.g.:
        • lady beetles.
3. Concepts:
   • wasteful killing
   • optimal foraging
   • polyphagy
   • omnivory
   • parasitoids
   • switching
   • intraguild predation
   • cannibalism
   • oviposition threshold
   • symbiotes
   • variation
   • kairomones
4. Host feeding in parasitic Hymenoptera.

3. Order Aranea.

1. Active vs. passive predators.
2. Factors affecting efficiency; e.g.:
   • intraguild predation.
   • numerical response.

4. Subclass Acari.

1. Family Phytoseiidae vs. spider mites
2. Factors affecting efficiency; e.g.:
   • alternate foods.
   • intraguild predation.
   • dispersal capabilities.
   • kairomones.

5. Survey of vertebrate predators.

1. Pisces (e.g., Gambusia affinis).
2. Amphibia (e.g., Bufo marianus).
3. Reptilia (e.g., Anolis spp.).
4. Aves (e.g., vs. codling moth, corn borer).
5. Mammalia (e.g., Indian mongoose, masked shrew).

6. Miscellaneous groups; e.g.:

• snails.
• flatworms.
• isopods.
• hydra.

General References.

• Clausen, C. P. 1940. Entomophagous Insects. Reprinted by Hafner, New York. 688 pp.
• Clausen, C. P. (Editor). 1978. Introduced Parasites and Predators of Arthropod Pests and Weeds: A World Review. USDA Agric. Handbook No. 480. Washington, D.C. 545 pp.
• Hagen, K. S., S. Bombosch & J. A. McMurtry. 1976. The Biology and Impact of Predators. Ch. 5 In Theory and Practice of Biological Control, C. B. Huffaker & P. S. Messenger (Eds.). Academic Press, New York. 788 pp.
• Newsome, A. 1990. The control of vertebrate pests by vertebrate predators. Trends in Evolution and Ecology 5: 187-91.

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